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Pathogen

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Pathogen_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Pathogen (disambiguation)">Pathogen (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Germs" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="Germs_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Germs (disambiguation)">Germs (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

In <a href="Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, a pathogen (<a href="Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: πάθος, pathos "suffering", "passion" and -γενής, -genēs "producer of"), in the oldest and broadest sense, is any <a href="Organism" title="Organism">organism</a> or agent that can produce <a href="Disease" title="Disease">disease</a>. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a <a href="Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">germ</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid5050429-1">[1]</a>

The term pathogen came into use in the 1880s.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-casadevall2014-3">[3]</a> Typically, the term pathogen is used to describe an infectious <a href="Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganism</a> or agent, such as a virus, bacterium, <a href="Protozoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Protozoan">protozoan</a>, <a href="Prion" title="Prion">prion</a>, <a href="Viroid" title="Viroid">viroid</a>, or <a href="Fungus" title="Fungus">fungus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Alberts_2002-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Small animals, such as <a href="Helminths" class="mw-redirect" title="Helminths">helminths</a> and insects, can also cause or <a href="Transmission_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">transmit</a> disease. However, these animals are usually referred to as <a href="Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a> rather than pathogens.<a href="#cite_note-pmid30416709-7">[7]</a> The scientific study of microscopic organisms, including microscopic pathogenic organisms, is called <a href="Microbiology" title="Microbiology">microbiology</a>, while <a href="Parasitology" title="Parasitology">parasitology</a> refers to the scientific study of parasites and the organisms that host them.

There are several pathways through which pathogens can invade a host. The principal pathways have different episodic time frames, but <a href="Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">soil</a> has the longest or most persistent potential for harboring a pathogen.

Diseases in humans that are caused by infectious agents are known as pathogenic diseases. Not all diseases are caused by pathogens, such as <a href="Coalworker's_pneumoconiosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Coalworker's pneumoconiosis">black lung</a> from exposure to the pollutant <a href="Coal_dust" title="Coal dust">coal dust</a>, <a href="Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">genetic disorders</a> like <a href="Sickle_cell_disease" title="Sickle cell disease">sickle cell disease</a>, and <a href="Autoimmune_disease" title="Autoimmune disease">autoimmune diseases</a> like <a href="Lupus" title="Lupus">lupus</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathogenicity">Pathogenicity</h2></div>

Pathogenicity is the potential disease-causing capacity of pathogens, involving a combination of <a href="Infectivity" title="Infectivity">infectivity</a> (pathogen's ability to infect hosts) and <a href="Virulence" title="Virulence">virulence</a> (severity of host disease). <a href="Koch's_postulates" title="Koch's postulates">Koch's postulates</a> are used to establish causal relationships between microbial pathogens and diseases. Whereas <a href="Meningitis" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a> can be caused by a variety of bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic pathogens, <a href="Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> is only caused by some strains of <a href="Vibrio_cholerae" title="Vibrio cholerae">Vibrio cholerae</a>. Additionally, some pathogens may only cause disease in hosts with an <a href="Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">immunodeficiency</a>. These <a href="Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">opportunistic infections</a> often involve <a href="Hospital-acquired_infection" title="Hospital-acquired infection">hospital-acquired infections</a> among patients already combating another condition.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a>

Infectivity involves <a href="Pathogen_transmission" title="Pathogen transmission">pathogen transmission</a> through direct contact with the bodily fluids or airborne droplets of infected hosts, indirect contact involving contaminated areas/items, or transfer by living <a href="Disease_vector" title="Disease vector">vectors</a> like <a href="Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquitos</a> and <a href="Tick" title="Tick">ticks</a>. The <a href="Basic_reproduction_number" title="Basic reproduction number">basic reproduction number</a> of an infection is the expected number of subsequent cases it is likely to cause through transmission.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a>

Virulence involves pathogens extracting host nutrients for their survival, evading host immune systems by producing <a href="Microbial_toxin" title="Microbial toxin">microbial toxins</a> and causing <a href="Immunosuppression" title="Immunosuppression">immunosuppression</a>. <a href="Optimal_virulence" title="Optimal virulence">Optimal virulence</a> describes a theorized equilibrium between a pathogen spreading to additional hosts to parasitize resources, while lowering their virulence to keep hosts living for <a href="Vertical_transmission" title="Vertical transmission">vertical transmission</a> to their offspring.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Algae">Algae</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></div>

Algae include single-celled <a href="Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> that are generally non-pathogenic. Green algae from the genus <a href="Prototheca" title="Prototheca">Prototheca</a> lack chlorophyll and are known to cause the disease <a href="Protothecosis" title="Protothecosis">protothecosis</a> in humans, dogs, cats, and cattle, typically involving the soil-associated species <a href="Prototheca_wickerhamii" title="Prototheca wickerhamii">Prototheca wickerhamii</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lass-Flörl-2007-13">[13]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bacteria">Bacteria</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">Pathogenic bacteria</a></div>

Bacteria are single-celled <a href="Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a> that range in size from 0.15 and 700 μM.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> While the vast majority are either harmless or beneficial to their hosts, such as members of the <a href="Human_microbiome" title="Human microbiome">human gut microbiome</a> that support digestion, a small percentage are pathogenic and cause infectious diseases. Bacterial <a href="Virulence_factor" title="Virulence factor">virulence factors</a> include adherence factors to attach to host cells, invasion factors supporting entry into host cells, <a href="Bacterial_capsule" title="Bacterial capsule">capsules</a> to prevent <a href="Opsonin" title="Opsonin">opsonization</a> and <a href="Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">phagocytosis</a>, toxins, and <a href="Siderophore" title="Siderophore">siderophores</a> to acquire iron.<a href="#cite_note-Peterson-1996-15">[15]</a>

The bacterial disease <a href="Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, primarily caused by <a href="Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis">Mycobacterium tuberculosis</a>, has one of the highest <a href="Disease_burden" title="Disease burden">disease burdens</a>, killing 1.6 million people in 2021, mostly in Africa and Southeast Asia.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <a href="Pneumonia#Bacteria" title="Pneumonia">Bacterial pneumonia</a> is primarily caused by <a href="Streptococcus_pneumoniae" title="Streptococcus pneumoniae">Streptococcus pneumoniae</a>, <a href="Staphylococcus_aureus" title="Staphylococcus aureus">Staphylococcus aureus</a>, <a href="Klebsiella_pneumoniae" title="Klebsiella pneumoniae">Klebsiella pneumoniae</a>, and <a href="Haemophilus_influenzae" title="Haemophilus influenzae">Haemophilus influenzae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Foodborne illnesses typically involve <a href="Campylobacter" title="Campylobacter">Campylobacter</a>, <a href="Clostridium_perfringens" title="Clostridium perfringens">Clostridium perfringens</a>, <a href="Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a>, <a href="Listeria_monocytogenes" title="Listeria monocytogenes">Listeria monocytogenes</a>, and <a href="Salmonella" title="Salmonella">Salmonella</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Other infectious diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria include <a href="Tetanus" title="Tetanus">tetanus</a>, <a href="Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">typhoid fever</a>, <a href="Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a>, and <a href="Leprosy" title="Leprosy">leprosy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Peterson-1996-15">[15]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fungi">Fungi</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Pathogenic_fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogenic fungi">Pathogenic fungi</a></div>

Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that can function as pathogens. There are approximately 300 known fungi that are pathogenic to humans, including <a href="Candida_albicans" title="Candida albicans">Candida albicans</a>, which is the most common cause of <a href="Candidiasis" title="Candidiasis">thrush</a>, and <a href="Cryptococcus_neoformans" title="Cryptococcus neoformans">Cryptococcus neoformans</a>, which can cause a severe form of <a href="Meningitis" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Typical fungal spores are 4.7 μm long or smaller.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prions">Prions</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Prion" title="Prion">Prion</a></div>

<a href="Prion" title="Prion">Prions</a> are misfolded proteins that transmit their abnormal folding pattern to other copies of the protein without using <a href="Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">nucleic acids</a>. Besides obtaining prions from others, these misfolded proteins arise from genetic differences, either due to family history or sporadic mutations.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Plants uptake prions from contaminated soil and transport them into their stem and leaves, potentially transmitting the prions to <a href="Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivorous animals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Additionally, wood, rocks, plastic, glass, cement, stainless steel, and aluminum have been shown binding, retaining, and releasing prions, showcasing that the proteins resist environmental degradation.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

Prions are best known for causing <a href="Transmissible_spongiform_encephalopathy" title="Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy">transmissible spongiform encephalopathy</a> (TSE) diseases like <a href="Creutzfeldt%E2%80%93Jakob_disease" title="Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease">Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease</a> (CJD), <a href="Variant_Creutzfeldt%E2%80%93Jakob_disease" title="Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease">variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease</a> (vCJD), <a href="Gerstmann%E2%80%93Str%C3%A4ussler%E2%80%93Scheinker_syndrome" title="Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker syndrome">Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker syndrome</a> (GSS), <a href="Fatal_insomnia" title="Fatal insomnia">fatal familial insomnia</a> (FFI), and <a href="Kuru_(disease)" title="Kuru (disease)">kuru</a> in humans.<a href="#cite_note-Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention-2021-24">[24]</a>

While prions are typically viewed as pathogens that cause protein <a href="Amyloid" title="Amyloid">amyloid</a> fibers to accumulate into neurodegenerative plaques, <a href="Susan_Lindquist" title="Susan Lindquist">Susan Lindquist</a> led research showing that yeast use prions to pass on evolutionarily beneficial traits.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Viroids">Viroids</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Viroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Viroids">Viroids</a></div>

Not to be confused with <a href="Virusoid" title="Virusoid">virusoids</a> or viruses, viroids are the smallest known infectious pathogens. Viroids are small single-stranded, circular RNA that are only known to cause plant diseases, such as the <a href="Potato_spindle_tuber_viroid" title="Potato spindle tuber viroid">potato spindle tuber viroid</a> that affects various agricultural crops. Viroid RNA is not protected by a protein coat, and it does not encode any proteins, only acting as a <a href="Ribozyme" title="Ribozyme">ribozyme</a> to catalyze other biochemical reactions.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Viruses">Viruses</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></div>

Viruses are generally between 20–200 nm in diameter.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> For survival and replication, viruses inject their genome into host cells, insert those genes into the host genome, and hijack the host's machinery to produce hundreds of new viruses until the cell bursts open to release them for additional infections. The <a href="Lytic_cycle" title="Lytic cycle">lytic cycle</a> describes this active state of rapidly killing hosts, while the <a href="Lysogenic_cycle" title="Lysogenic cycle">lysogenic cycle</a> describes potentially hundreds of years of dormancy while integrated in the host genome.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Alongside the taxonomy organized by the <a href="International_Committee_on_Taxonomy_of_Viruses" title="International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses">International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses</a> (ICTV), the <a href="Baltimore_classification" title="Baltimore classification">Baltimore classification</a> separates viruses by seven classes of <a href="Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA">mRNA</a> production:<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a>

<ul><li>I: dsDNA viruses (e.g., <a href="Adenoviridae" title="Adenoviridae">Adenoviruses</a>, <a href="Herpesviridae" title="Herpesviridae">Herpesviruses</a>, and <a href="Poxviridae" title="Poxviridae">Poxviruses</a>) cause <a href="Herpes_simplex" class="mw-redirect" title="Herpes simplex">herpes</a>, <a href="Chickenpox" title="Chickenpox">chickenpox</a>, and <a href="Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a></li>

<li>II: ssDNA viruses (+ strand or "sense") DNA (e.g., <a href="Parvoviridae" title="Parvoviridae">Parvoviruses</a>) include <a href="Parvovirus_B19" title="Parvovirus B19">parvovirus B19</a></li>

<li>III: dsRNA viruses (e.g., <a href="Reoviridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Reoviridae">Reoviruses</a>) include <a href="Rotavirus" title="Rotavirus">rotaviruses</a></li>

<li>IV: (+)ssRNA viruses (+ strand or sense) RNA (e.g., <a href="Coronavirus" title="Coronavirus">Coronaviruses</a>, <a href="Picornavirus" title="Picornavirus">Picornaviruses</a>, and <a href="Alphavirus" title="Alphavirus">Togaviruses</a>) cause <a href="COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a>, <a href="Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">dengue fever</a>, <a href="Hepatitis_A" title="Hepatitis A">Hepatitis A</a>, <a href="Hepatitis_C" title="Hepatitis C">Hepatitis C</a>, <a href="Rubella" title="Rubella">rubella</a>, and <a href="Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a></li>

<li>V: (−)ssRNA viruses (− strand or antisense) RNA (e.g., <a href="Orthomyxoviridae" title="Orthomyxoviridae">Orthomyxoviruses</a> and <a href="Rhabdoviridae" title="Rhabdoviridae">Rhabdoviruses</a>) cause <a href="Ebola" title="Ebola">ebola</a>, <a href="Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>, <a href="Measles" title="Measles">measles</a>, <a href="Mumps" title="Mumps">mumps</a>, and <a href="Rabies" title="Rabies">rabies</a></li>

<li>VI: ssRNA-RT viruses (+ strand or sense) RNA with DNA intermediate in life-cycle (e.g., <a href="Retrovirus" title="Retrovirus">Retroviruses</a>) cause <a href="HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a></li>

<li>VII: dsDNA-RT viruses DNA with RNA intermediate in life-cycle (e.g., <a href="Hepadnaviridae" title="Hepadnaviridae">Hepadnaviruses</a>) cause <a href="Hepatitis_B" title="Hepatitis B">Hepatitis B</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_parasites">Other parasites</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Human_parasites" class="mw-redirect" title="Human parasites">Human parasites</a></div>

Protozoans are single-celled eukaryotes that feed on microorganisms and organic tissues. Many protozoans act as pathogenic parasites to cause diseases like <a href="Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, <a href="Amoebiasis" title="Amoebiasis">amoebiasis</a>, <a href="Giardiasis" title="Giardiasis">giardiasis</a>, <a href="Toxoplasmosis" title="Toxoplasmosis">toxoplasmosis</a>, <a href="Cryptosporidiosis" title="Cryptosporidiosis">cryptosporidiosis</a>, <a href="Trichomoniasis" title="Trichomoniasis">trichomoniasis</a>, <a href="Chagas_disease" title="Chagas disease">Chagas disease</a>, <a href="Leishmaniasis" title="Leishmaniasis">leishmaniasis</a>, <a href="African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">African trypanosomiasis</a> (sleeping sickness), <a href="Acanthamoeba_keratitis" title="Acanthamoeba keratitis">Acanthamoeba keratitis</a>, and <a href="Primary_amoebic_meningoencephalitis" title="Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis">primary amoebic meningoencephalitis</a> (naegleriasis).<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a>

<a href="Parasitic_worm" title="Parasitic worm">Parasitic worms</a> (helminths) are macroparasites that can be seen by the naked eye. Worms live and feed in their living host, acquiring nutrients and shelter in the digestive tract or bloodstream of their host. They also manipulate the host's immune system by secreting immunomodulatory products which allows them to live in their host for years.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <a href="Helminthiasis" title="Helminthiasis">Helminthiasis</a> is the generalized term for parasitic worm infections, which typically involve <a href="Nematode" title="Nematode">roundworms</a>, <a href="Cestoda" title="Cestoda">tapeworms</a>, and <a href="Trematoda" title="Trematoda">flatworms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathogen_hosts">Pathogen hosts</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bacteria_2">Bacteria</h3></div>

While bacteria are typically viewed as pathogens, they serve as hosts to <a href="Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophage</a> viruses (commonly known as phages). The bacteriophage life cycle involves the viruses injecting their genome into bacterial cells, inserting those genes into the bacterial genome, and hijacking the bacteria's machinery to produce hundreds of new phages until the cell bursts open to release them for additional infections. Typically, bacteriophages are only capable of infecting a specific species or strain.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a>

<a href="Streptococcus_pyogenes" title="Streptococcus pyogenes">Streptococcus pyogenes</a> uses a <a href="Cas9" title="Cas9">Cas9</a> <a href="Nuclease" title="Nuclease">nuclease</a> to cleave foreign DNA matching the Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (<a href="CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR</a>) associated with bacteriophages, removing the viral genes to avoid infection. This mechanism has been modified for artificial <a href="CRISPR_gene_editing" title="CRISPR gene editing">CRISPR gene editing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plants">Plants</h3></div>

Plants can play host to a wide range of pathogen types, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and even other plants.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Notable plant viruses include the <a href="Papaya_ringspot_virus" title="Papaya ringspot virus">papaya ringspot virus</a>, which has caused millions of dollars of damage to farmers in Hawaii and Southeast Asia,<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> and the <a href="Tobacco_mosaic_virus" title="Tobacco mosaic virus">tobacco mosaic virus</a> which caused scientist <a href="Martinus_Beijerinck" title="Martinus Beijerinck">Martinus Beijerinck</a> to coin the term "virus" in 1898.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Bacterial <a href="Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">plant pathogens</a> cause leaf spots, blight, and rot in many plant species.<a href="#cite_note-Tewari-2019-38">[38]</a> The most common bacterial pathogens for plants are <a href="Pseudomonas_syringae" title="Pseudomonas syringae">Pseudomonas syringae</a> and <a href="Ralstonia_solanacearum" title="Ralstonia solanacearum">Ralstonia solanacearum</a>, which cause leaf browning and other issues in potatoes, tomatoes, and bananas.<a href="#cite_note-Tewari-2019-38">[38]</a>

<a href="Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a> are another major pathogen type for plants. They can cause a wide variety of issues such as shorter plant height, growths or pits on tree trunks, root or seed rot, and leaf spots.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Common and serious plant fungi include the <a href="Magnaporthe_grisea" title="Magnaporthe grisea">rice blast fungus</a>, <a href="Dutch_elm_disease" title="Dutch elm disease">Dutch elm disease</a>, <a href="Chestnut_blight" title="Chestnut blight">chestnut blight</a> and the <a href="Dibotryon_morbosum" title="Dibotryon morbosum">black knot</a> and <a href="Monilinia_fructicola" title="Monilinia fructicola">brown rot</a> diseases of cherries, plums, and peaches. It is estimated that pathogenic fungi alone cause up to a 65% reduction in crop yield.<a href="#cite_note-Tewari-2019-38">[38]</a>

Overall, plants have a wide array of pathogens and it has been estimated that only 3% of the disease caused by plant pathogens can be managed.<a href="#cite_note-Tewari-2019-38">[38]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Animals">Animals</h3></div>

Animals often get infected with many of the same or similar pathogens as humans including prions, viruses, bacteria, and fungi. While wild animals often get illnesses, the larger danger is for livestock animals. It is estimated that in rural settings, 90% or more of livestock deaths can be attributed to pathogens.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Animal transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSEs) involving prions include <a href="Bovine_spongiform_encephalopathy" title="Bovine spongiform encephalopathy">bovine spongiform encephalopathy</a> (mad cow disease), <a href="Chronic_wasting_disease" title="Chronic wasting disease">chronic wasting disease</a>, <a href="Scrapie" title="Scrapie">scrapie</a>, <a href="Transmissible_mink_encephalopathy" title="Transmissible mink encephalopathy">transmissible mink encephalopathy</a>, <a href="Feline_spongiform_encephalopathy" title="Feline spongiform encephalopathy">feline spongiform encephalopathy</a>, and ungulate spongiform encephalopathy.<a href="#cite_note-Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention-2021-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Other animal diseases include a variety of immunodeficiency disorders caused by viruses related to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), such as <a href="Bovine_immunodeficiency_virus" title="Bovine immunodeficiency virus">BIV</a> and <a href="Feline_immunodeficiency_virus" title="Feline immunodeficiency virus">FIV</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Humans">Humans</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Human_pathogen" title="Human pathogen">Human pathogen</a></div>

Humans can be infected with many types of pathogens, including prions, viruses, bacteria, and fungi, causing symptoms like sneezing, coughing, fever, vomiting, and potentially lethal <a href="Organ_dysfunction" title="Organ dysfunction">organ failure</a>. While some symptoms are caused by the pathogenic infection, others are caused by the immune system's efforts to kill the pathogen, such as feverishly high body temperatures meant to <a href="Denaturation_(biochemistry)" title="Denaturation (biochemistry)">denature</a> pathogenic cells.<a href="#cite_note-Alberts_2002-4">[4]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment">Treatment</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prions_2">Prions</h3></div>

Despite many attempts, no therapy has been shown to halt the progression of <a href="Prion_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Prion diseases">prion diseases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Viruses_2">Viruses</h3></div>

A variety of prevention and treatment options exist for some viral pathogens. <a href="Vaccine" title="Vaccine">Vaccines</a> are one common and effective preventive measure against a variety of viral pathogens.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Vaccines prime the immune system of the host, so that when the potential host encounters the virus in the wild, the immune system can defend against infection quickly. Vaccines designed against viruses include annual <a href="Influenza_vaccine" title="Influenza vaccine">influenza vaccines</a> and the two-dose <a href="MMR_vaccine" title="MMR vaccine">MMR vaccine</a> against <a href="Measles" title="Measles">measles</a>, <a href="Mumps" title="Mumps">mumps</a>, and <a href="Rubella" title="Rubella">rubella</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention-2019-46">[46]</a> Vaccines are not available against the viruses responsible for <a href="HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a>, <a href="Dengue_virus" title="Dengue virus">dengue</a>, and <a href="Chikungunya" title="Chikungunya">chikungunya</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a>

Treatment of viral infections often involves treating the symptoms of the infection, rather than providing medication to combat the viral pathogen itself.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Treating the symptoms of a viral infection gives the host immune system time to develop antibodies against the viral pathogen. However, for HIV, <a href="Management_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Management of HIV/AIDS">highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART)</a> is conducted to prevent the viral disease from progressing into AIDS as immune cells are lost.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bacteria_3">Bacteria</h3></div>

Much like viral pathogens, infection by certain bacterial pathogens can be prevented via vaccines.<a href="#cite_note-Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention-2019-46">[46]</a> Vaccines against bacterial pathogens include the <a href="Anthrax_vaccines" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthrax vaccines">anthrax vaccine</a> and <a href="Pneumococcal_vaccine" title="Pneumococcal vaccine">pneumococcal vaccine</a>. Many other bacterial pathogens lack vaccines as a preventive measure, but infection by these bacteria can often be treated or prevented with <a href="Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>. Common antibiotics include <a href="Amoxicillin" title="Amoxicillin">amoxicillin</a>, <a href="Ciprofloxacin/dexamethasone" title="Ciprofloxacin/dexamethasone">ciprofloxacin</a>, and <a href="Doxycycline" title="Doxycycline">doxycycline</a>. Each antibiotic has different bacteria that it is effective against and has different mechanisms to kill that bacteria. For example, <a href="Doxycycline" title="Doxycycline">doxycycline</a> inhibits the synthesis of new proteins in both <a href="Gram-negative_bacteria" title="Gram-negative bacteria">gram-negative</a> and <a href="Gram-positive_bacteria" title="Gram-positive bacteria">gram-positive bacteria</a>, which makes it a <a href="Broad-spectrum_antibiotic" title="Broad-spectrum antibiotic">broad-spectrum antibiotic</a> capable of killing most bacterial species.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a>

Due to misuse of antibiotics, such as prematurely ended prescriptions exposing bacteria to <a href="Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">evolutionary pressure</a> under sublethal doses, some bacterial pathogens have developed <a href="Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">antibiotic resistance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> For example, a genetically distinct strain of <a href="Staphylococcus_aureus" title="Staphylococcus aureus">Staphylococcus aureus</a> called <a href="Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus" title="Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus">MRSA</a> is resistant to the commonly prescribed <a href="Beta-lactam_antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-lactam antibiotics">beta-lactam antibiotics</a>. A 2013 report from the <a href="Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC) estimated that in the United States, at least 2 million people get an antibiotic-resistant bacterial infection annually, with at least 23,000 of those patients dying from the infection.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a>

Due to their indispensability in combating bacteria, new antibiotics are required for medical care. One target for new antimicrobial medications involves inhibiting <a href="DNA_methyltransferase" title="DNA methyltransferase">DNA methyltransferases</a>, as these proteins control the levels of expression for other genes, such as those encoding virulence factors.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fungi_2">Fungi</h3></div>

Infection by fungal pathogens is treated with anti-fungal medication. <a href="Athlete's_foot" title="Athlete's foot">Athlete's foot</a>, <a href="Tinea_cruris" title="Tinea cruris">jock itch</a>, and <a href="Dermatophytosis" title="Dermatophytosis">ringworm</a> are fungal skin infections that are treated with topical anti-fungal medications like <a href="Clotrimazole" title="Clotrimazole">clotrimazole</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Infections involving the yeast species <a href="Candida_albicans" title="Candida albicans">Candida albicans</a> cause <a href="Candidiasis" title="Candidiasis">oral thrush</a> and <a href="Vaginal_yeast_infection" title="Vaginal yeast infection">vaginal yeast infections</a>. These internal infections can either be treated with anti-fungal creams or with oral medication. Common anti-fungal drugs for internal infections include the <a href="Echinocandin" title="Echinocandin">echinocandin</a> family of drugs and <a href="Fluconazole" title="Fluconazole">fluconazole</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Algae_2">Algae</h3></div>

While algae are commonly not thought of as pathogens, the genus <a href="Prototheca" title="Prototheca">Prototheca</a> causes disease in humans.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lass-Flörl-2007-13">[13]</a> Treatment for <a href="Protothecosis" title="Protothecosis">protothecosis</a> is currently under investigation, and there is no consistency in clinical treatment.<a href="#cite_note-Lass-Flörl-2007-13">[13]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sexual_interactions">Sexual interactions</h2></div>

Many pathogens are capable of sexual interaction. Among <a href="Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">pathogenic bacteria</a>, sexual interaction occurs between cells of the same species by the process of <a href="Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">genetic transformation</a>. Transformation involves the transfer of <a href="DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> from a donor cell to a recipient cell and the integration of the donor DNA into the recipient <a href="Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> through <a href="Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">genetic recombination</a>. The bacterial pathogens <a href="Helicobacter_pylori" title="Helicobacter pylori">Helicobacter pylori</a>, <a href="Haemophilus_influenzae" title="Haemophilus influenzae">Haemophilus influenzae</a>, <a href="Legionella_pneumophila" title="Legionella pneumophila">Legionella pneumophila</a>, <a href="Neisseria_gonorrhoeae" title="Neisseria gonorrhoeae">Neisseria gonorrhoeae</a>, and <a href="Streptococcus_pneumoniae" title="Streptococcus pneumoniae">Streptococcus pneumoniae</a> frequently undergo transformation to modify their genome for additional traits and evasion of host immune cells.<a href="#cite_note-Bernstein-59">[59]</a>

<a href="Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotic</a> pathogens are often capable of sexual interaction by a process involving <a href="Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> and <a href="Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">fertilization</a>. Meiosis involves the intimate pairing of homologous chromosomes and recombination between them. Examples of eukaryotic pathogens capable of sex include the <a href="Protozoan_infection" title="Protozoan infection">protozoan parasites</a> <a href="Plasmodium_falciparum" title="Plasmodium falciparum">Plasmodium falciparum</a>, <a href="Toxoplasma_gondii" title="Toxoplasma gondii">Toxoplasma gondii</a>, <a href="Trypanosoma_brucei" title="Trypanosoma brucei">Trypanosoma brucei</a>, <a href="Giardia_lamblia" class="mw-redirect" title="Giardia lamblia">Giardia intestinalis</a>, and the fungi <a href="Aspergillus_fumigatus" title="Aspergillus fumigatus">Aspergillus fumigatus</a>, <a href="Candida_albicans" title="Candida albicans">Candida albicans</a> and <a href="Cryptococcus_neoformans" title="Cryptococcus neoformans">Cryptococcus neoformans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bernstein-59">[59]</a>

Viruses may also undergo sexual interaction when two or more viral <a href="Genome" title="Genome">genomes</a> enter the same host cell. This process involves pairing of homologous genomes and recombination between them by a process referred to as multiplicity reactivation. The <a href="Herpes_simplex_virus" title="Herpes simplex virus">herpes simplex virus</a>, <a href="HIV" title="HIV">human immunodeficiency virus</a>, and <a href="Vaccinia" title="Vaccinia">vaccinia</a> virus undergo this form of sexual interaction.<a href="#cite_note-Bernstein-59">[59]</a>

These processes of sexual recombination between homologous genomes supports <a href="DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">repairs</a> to genetic damage caused by environmental stressors and host immune systems.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Antigenic_escape" title="Antigenic escape">Antigenic escape</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_competence" title="Ecological competence">Ecological competence</a></li>

<li><a href="Emerging_Pathogens_Institute" title="Emerging Pathogens Institute">Emerging Pathogens Institute</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_pathogen" title="Human pathogen">Human pathogen</a></li>

<li><a href="PHI-base" title="PHI-base">Pathogen-Host Interaction Database (PHI-base)</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://d.umn.edu/~rhicks/genmicro/Pronunciation%20Guide.pdf">Pronunciation Guide to Microorganisms (1)</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170516231508/http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~microlab/CLASSINFO/IMAGESCI/pronunciation%20guide.pdf">Pronunciation Guide to Microorganisms (2)</a></li></ul>

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